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3.7 How Science Works

How Science Works is an underpinning set of concepts and is the means whereby students come to understand how scientists investigate scientific phenomena in their attempts to explain the world about us. Moreover, How Science Works recognises the contribution scientists have made to their own disciplines and to the wider world.

Further, it recognises that scientists may be influenced by their own beliefs and that these can affect the way in which they approach their work.

Also, it acknowledges that scientists can and must contribute to debates about the uses to which their work is put and how their work influences decisionmaking in society.

In general terms, it can be used to promote students' skills in solving scientific problems by developing an understanding of:

As students become profi cient in these aspects of How Science Works, they can also engage with the place and contribution of science in the wider world.

In particular, students will begin to recognise:

An understanding of How Science Works is a requirement for this Specificatiion and is set out in the following points which are taken direct from the GCE AS and A Level subject criteria for science subjects.

Each point is expanded in the context of Chemistry.

The specification references given illustrate where the example is relevant and could be incorporated.

A - Use theories, models and ideas to develop and modify scientific explanations

Scientists use theories and models to attempt to explain observations. These theories or models can form the basis for scientific experimental work.

scientific progress is made when validated evidence is found that supports a new theory or model.

Examples in this specification include:

B - Use knowledge and understanding to pose scientific questions, define scientific problems, present scientific arguments and scientific ideas

Scientists use their knowledge and understanding when observing objects and events, in defi ning a scientific problem and when questioning the explanations of themselves or of other scientists.

scientific progress is made when scientists contribute to the development of new ideas, materials and theories.

Examples in this specification include:

C - Use appropriate methodology, including ICT, to answer scientific questions and solve scientific problems

Observations ultimately lead to explanations in the form of hypotheses. In turn, these hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested experimentally. Observations are one of the key links between the ereal world' and the abstract ideas of science.

Once an experimental method has been validated, it becomes a protocol that is used by other scientists.

ICT can be used to speed up, collect, record and analyse experimental data.

Examples in this specification include:

D - Carry out experimental and investigative activities, including appropriate risk management, in a range of contexts

Scientists perform a range of experimental skills that include manual and data skills (tabulation, graphical skills etc).

Scientists should select and use equipment that is appropriate when making accurate measurements and should record these measurements methodically.

Scientists carry out experimental work in such a way as to minimise the risk to themselves, to others and to the materials, including organisms, used.

Examples in this specification include:

E - Analyse and interpret data to provide evidence, recognising correlations and causal relationships

Scientists look for patterns and trends in data as a fi rst step in providing explanations of phenomena. The degree of uncertainty in any data will affect whether alternative explanations can be given for the data.

Anomalous data are those measurements that fall outside the normal, or expected, range of measured values. Decisions on how to treat anomalous data should be made only after examination of the event.

In searching for causal links between factors, scientists propose predictive theoretical models that can be tested experimentally. When experimental data confirm predictions from these theoretical models, scientists become confi dent that a causal relationship exists.

Examples in this specification include:

F - Evaluate methodology, evidence and data, and resolve confl icting evidence

The validity of new evidence, and the robustness of conclusions that stem from them, is constantly questioned by scientists.

Experimental methods must be designed adequately to test predictions. Solutions to scientific problems are often developed when different research teams produce confl icting evidence. Such evidence is a stimulus for further scientific investigation, which involves refi nements of experimental technique or development of new hypotheses.

Examples in this specification include:

G - Appreciate the tentative nature of scientific knowledge

scientific explanations are those that are based on experimental evidence which is supported by the scientific community.

scientific knowledge changes when new evidence provides a better explanation of scientific observations.

Examples in this specification include:

H - Communicate information and ideas in appropriate ways using appropriate terminology

By sharing the findings of their research, scientists provide the scientific community with opportunities to replicate and further test their work, thus either confirming new explanations or refuting them.

Scientific terminology avoids confusion amongst the scientific community, enabling better understanding and testing of scientific explanations.

Examples in this specification include:

I - Consider applications and implications of science and appreciate their associated benefits and risks

scientific advances have greatly improved the quality of life for the majority of people.

Developments in technology, medicine and materials continue to further these improvements at an increasing rate.

Scientists can predict and report on some of the benefi cial applications of their experimental findings.

Scientists evaluate, and report on, the risks associated with the techniques they develop and applications of their findings.

Examples in this specification include:

J - Consider ethical issues in the treatment of humans, other organisms and the environment

scientific research is funded by society, either through public funding or through private companies that obtain their income from commercial activities. Scientists have a duty to consider ethical issues associated with their findings. Individual scientists have ethical codes that are often based on humanistic, moral and religious beliefs. Scientists are self-regulating and contribute to decision making about what investigations and methodologies should be permitted.

Examples in this specification include:

K - Appreciate the role of the scientific community in validating new knowledge and ensuring integrity

The findings of scientists are subject to peer review before being accepted for publication in a reputable scientific journal. The interests of the organisations that fund scientific research can influence the direction of research. In some cases the validity of those claims may also be influenced

Examples in this specification include:

L - Appreciate the ways in which society uses science to inform decision making

scientific findings and technologies enable advances to be made that have potential benefi t for humans. In practice, the scientific evidence available to decision makers may be incomplete. Decision makers are influenced in many ways, including by their prior beliefs, their vested interests, special interest groups, public opinion and the media, as well as by expert scientific evidence

Examples in this specification include: